XML

XML Tutorial

XML stands for Extensible Markup Language. It is a text-based markup language derived from Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML).

XML tags identify the data and are used to store and organize the data, rather than specifying how to display it like HTML tags, which are used to display the data. XML is not going to replace HTML in the near future, but it introduces new possibilities by adopting many successful features of HTML.

There are three important characteristics of XML that make it useful in a variety of systems and solutions −

XML is extensible − XML allows you to create your own self-descriptive tags, or language, that suits your application.

XML carries the data, does not present it − XML allows you to store the data irrespective of how it will be presented.

XML is a public standard − XML was developed by an organization called the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) and is available as an open standard.

XML Usage

A short list of XML usage says it all −

XML can work behind the scene to simplify the creation of HTML documents for large web sites.

XML can be used to exchange the information between organizations and systems.

XML can be used for offloading and reloading of databases.

XML can be used to store and arrange the data, which can customize your data handling needs.

XML can easily be merged with style sheets to create almost any desired output.

Virtually, any type of data can be expressed as an XML document.

What is Markup?

XML is a markup language that defines set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both human-readable and machine-readable. So what exactly is a markup language? Markup is information added to a document that enhances its meaning in certain ways, in that it identifies the parts and how they relate to each other. More specifically, a markup language is a set of symbols that can be placed in the text of a document to demarcate and label the parts of that document.

Following example shows how XML markup looks, when embedded in a piece of text −

<message> <text>Hello, world!</text> </message>

This snippet includes the markup symbols, or the tags such as <message>...</message> and <text>... </text>. The tags <message> and </message> mark the start and the end of the XML code fragment. The tags <text> and </text> surround the text Hello, world!.

Is XML a Programming Language?

A programming language consists of grammar rules and its own vocabulary which is used to create computer programs. These programs instruct the computer to perform specific tasks. XML does not qualify to be a programming language as it does not perform any computation or algorithms. It is usually stored in a simple text file and is processed by special software that is capable of interpreting XML.

XML - Syntax

In this chapter, we will discuss the simple syntax rules to write an XML document. Following is a complete XML document −

<?xml version = "1.0"?> <contact-info> <name>Tanmay Patil</name> <company>TutorialsPoint</company> <phone>(011) 123-4567</phone> </contact-info>

You can notice there are two kinds of information in the above example −

Markup, like <contact-info>

The text, or the character data, Tutorials Point and (040) 123-4567.

The following diagram depicts the syntax rules to write different types of markup and text in an XML document.

Let us see each component of the above diagram in detail.

XML Declaration

The XML document can optionally have an XML declaration. It is written as follows −

<?xml version = "1.0" encoding = "UTF-8"?>

Where version is the XML version and encoding specifies the character encoding used in the document.

Syntax Rules for XML Declaration

The XML declaration is case sensitive and must begin with "<?xml>" where "xml" is written in lower-case.

If document contains XML declaration, then it strictly needs to be the first statement of the XML document.

The XML declaration strictly needs be the first statement in the XML document.

An HTTP protocol can override the value of encoding that you put in the XML declaration.

Tags and Elements

An XML file is structured by several XML-elements, also called XML-nodes or XML-tags. The names of XML-elements are enclosed in triangular brackets < > as shown below −

<element>

Syntax Rules for Tags and Elements

Element Syntax − Each XML-element needs to be closed either with start or with end elements as shown below −

<element>....</element>

or in simple-cases, just this way −

<element/>

Nesting of Elements − An XML-element can contain multiple XML-elements as its children, but the children elements must not overlap. i.e., an end tag of an element must have the same name as that of the most recent unmatched start tag.

The Following example shows incorrect nested tags −

<?xml version = "1.0"?> <contact-info> <company>TutorialsPoint <contact-info> </company>

The Following example shows correct nested tags −

<?xml version = "1.0"?> <contact-info> <company>TutorialsPoint</company> <contact-info>

Root Element − An XML document can have only one root element. For example, following is not a correct XML document, because both the x and yelements occur at the top level without a root element −

<x>...</x> <y>...</y>

The Following example shows a correctly formed XML document −

<root> <x>...</x> <y>...</y> </root>

Case Sensitivity − The names of XML-elements are case-sensitive. That means the name of the start and the end elements need to be exactly in the same case.

For example, <contact-info> is different from <Contact-Info>

XML Attributes

An attribute specifies a single property for the element, using a name/value pair. An XML-element can have one or more attributes. For example −

<a href = "http://www.tutorialspoint.com/">Tutorialspoint!</a>

Here href is the attribute name and http://www.tutorialspoint.com/ is attribute value.

Syntax Rules for XML Attributes

Attribute names in XML (unlike HTML) are case sensitive. That is, HREFand href are considered two different XML attributes.

Same attribute cannot have two values in a syntax. The following example shows incorrect syntax because the attribute b is specified twice

−<a b = "x" c = "y" b = "z">....</a>

Attribute names are defined without quotation marks, whereas attribute values must always appear in quotation marks. Following example demonstrates incorrect xml syntax

−<a b = x>....</a>

In the above syntax, the attribute value is not defined in quotation marks.

XML References

References usually allow you to add or include additional text or markup in an XML document. References always begin with the symbol "&" which is a reserved character and end with the symbol ";". XML has two types of references −

Entity References − An entity reference contains a name between the start and the end delimiters. For example &amp; where amp is name. The name refers to a predefined string of text and/or markup.

Character References − These contain references, such as &#65;, contains a hash mark (“#”) followed by a number. The number always refers to the Unicode code of a character. In this case, 65 refers to alphabet "A".

XML Text

The names of XML-elements and XML-attributes are case-sensitive, which means the name of start and end elements need to be written in the same case. To avoid character encoding problems, all XML files should be saved as Unicode UTF-8 or UTF-16 files.

Whitespace characters like blanks, tabs and line-breaks between XML-elements and between the XML-attributes will be ignored.

Some characters are reserved by the XML syntax itself. Hence, they cannot be used directly. To use them, some replacement-entities are used, which are listed below −

Not Allowed CharacterReplacement EntityCharacter Description<&lt;less than>&gt;greater than&&amp;ampersand'&apos;apostrophe"&quot;quotation mark

XML - Documents

An XML document is a basic unit of XML information composed of elements and other markup in an orderly package. An XML document can contains wide variety of data. For example, database of numbers, numbers representing molecular structure or a mathematical equation.

XML Document Example

A simple document is shown in the following example −

<?xml version = "1.0"?> <contact-info> <name>Tanmay Patil</name> <company>TutorialsPoint</company> <phone>(011) 123-4567</phone> </contact-info>

The following image depicts the parts of XML document.

Document Prolog Section

Document Prolog comes at the top of the document, before the root element. This section contains −

XML declarationDocument type declaration

You can learn more about XML declaration in this chapter − XML Declaration

Document Elements Section

Document Elements are the building blocks of XML. These divide the document into a hierarchy of sections, each serving a specific purpose. You can separate a document into multiple sections so that they can be rendered differently, or used by a search engine. The elements can be containers, with a combination of text and other elements.

You can learn more about XML elements in this chapter − XML Elements

XML - Declaration

This chapter covers XML declaration in detail. XML declaration contains details that prepare an XML processor to parse the XML document. It is optional, but when used, it must appear in the first line of the XML document.

Syntax

Following syntax shows XML declaration −

<?xml version = "version_number" encoding = "encoding_declaration" standalone = "standalone_status" ?>

Each parameter consists of a parameter name, an equals sign (=), and parameter value inside a quote. Following table shows the above syntax in detail −

ParameterParameter_valueParameter_descriptionVersion1.0Specifies the version of the XML standard used.EncodingUTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-10646-UCS-2, ISO-10646-UCS-4, ISO-8859-1 to ISO-8859-9, ISO-2022-JP, Shift_JIS, EUC-JPIt defines the character encoding used in the document. UTF-8 is the default encoding used.Standaloneyes or noIt informs the parser whether the document relies on the information from an external source, such as external document type definition (DTD), for its content. The default value is set to no. Setting it to yes tells the processor there are no external declarations required for parsing the document.

Rules

An XML declaration should abide with the following rules −

If the XML declaration is present in the XML, it must be placed as the first line in the XML document.

If the XML declaration is included, it must contain version number attribute.

computer fundamentle

Computer Fundamentals - Quick Guide

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about computers. A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format.

The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer

If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions −

Step 1 − Takes data as input.

Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.

Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Step 4 − Generates the output.

Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers

Following are certain advantages of computers.

High Speed

Computer is a very fast device.

It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.

It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months to perform the same task.

Accuracy

In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

The calculations are 100% error free.

Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.

Storage Capability

Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

It can store large amount of data.

It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence

Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.

It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

A computer is a very versatile machine.

A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.

At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.

Reliability

A computer is a reliable machine.

Modern electronic components have long lives.

Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

Computer is an automatic machine.

Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process.

As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers

Following are certain disadvantages of computers.

No I.Q.

A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to the computer.

A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

Dependency

It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment

The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling

Computers have no feelings or emotions.

It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

Computer - Applications

In this chapter, we will discuss the application of computers in various fields.

Business

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in business organizations for −

Payroll calculationsBudgetingSales analysisFinancial forecastingManaging employee databaseMaintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities −

Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee records.

ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing −

Procedure to continue with policiesStarting date of the policiesNext due installment of a policyMaturity dateInterests dueSurvival benefitsBonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).

CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a computer to educate the students.

It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing

In marketing, uses of the computer are following −

Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the cause of illness.

Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared by computer.

Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.

Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels, expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.

Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose.

One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of the fields are −

Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.

Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Military

Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are −

Missile ControlMilitary CommunicationMilitary Operation and PlanningSmart Weapons

Communication

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are −

E-mailChattingUsenetFTPTelnetVideo-conferencing

Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are −

BudgetsSales tax departmentIncome tax departmentComputation of male/female ratioComputerization of voters listsComputerization of PAN cardWeather forecasting

Computer - Generations

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. Nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. In the following table, approximate dates against each generation has been mentioned, which are normally accepted.

Following are the main five generations of computers.

S.NoGeneration & Description1First Generation

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

2Second Generation

The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

3Third Generation

The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

4Fourth Generation

The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

5

software enggineering

Software Engineering Overview

Let us first understand what software engineering stands for. The term is made of two words, software and engineering.

Software is more than just a program code. A program is an executable code, which serves some computational purpose. Software is considered to be collection of executable programming code, associated libraries and documentations. Software, when made for a specific requirement is called software product.

Engineering on the other hand, is all about developing products, using well-defined, scientific principles and methods.

Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with development of software product using well-defined scientific principles, methods and procedures. The outcome of software engineering is an efficient and reliable software product.

Definitions

IEEE defines software engineering as:

(1) The application of a systematic,disciplined,quantifiable approach to the development,operation and maintenance of software; that is, the application of engineering to software.

(2) The study of approaches as in the above statement.

Fritz Bauer, a German computer scientist, defines software engineering as:

Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to obtain economically software that is reliable and work efficiently on real machines.

Software Evolution

The process of developing a software product using software engineering principles and methods is referred to as software evolution. This includes the initial development of software and its maintenance and updates, till desired software product is developed, which satisfies the expected requirements.

Evolution starts from the requirement gathering process. After which developers create a prototype of the intended software and show it to the users to get their feedback at the early stage of software product development. The users suggest changes, on which several consecutive updates and maintenance keep on changing too. This process changes to the original software, till the desired software is accomplished.

Even after the user has desired software in hand, the advancing technology and the changing requirements force the software product to change accordingly. Re-creating software from scratch and to go one-on-one with requirement is not feasible. The only feasible and economical solution is to update the existing software so that it matches the latest requirements.

Software Evolution Laws

Lehman has given laws for software evolution. He divided the software into three different categories:

S-type (static-type) - This is a software, which works strictly according to defined specifications and solutions. The solution and the method to achieve it, both are immediately understood before coding. The s-type software is least subjected to changes hence this is the simplest of all. For example, calculator program for mathematical computation.P-type (practical-type) - This is a software with a collection of procedures. This is defined by exactly what procedures can do. In this software, the specifications can be described but the solution is not obvious instantly. For example, gaming software.E-type (embedded-type) - This software works closely as the requirement of real-world environment. This software has a high degree of evolution as there are various changes in laws, taxes etc. in the real world situations. For example, Online trading software.

E-Type software evolution

Lehman has given eight laws for E-Type software evolution -

Continuing change - An E-type software system must continue to adapt to the real world changes, else it becomes progressively less useful.Increasing complexity - As an E-type software system evolves, its complexity tends to increase unless work is done to maintain or reduce it.Conservation of familiarity - The familiarity with the software or the knowledge about how it was developed, why was it developed in that particular manner etc. must be retained at any cost, to implement the changes in the system.Continuing growth- In order for an E-type system intended to resolve some business problem, its size of implementing the changes grows according to the lifestyle changes of the business.Reducing quality - An E-type software system declines in quality unless rigorously maintained and adapted to a changing operational environment.Feedback systems- The E-type software systems constitute multi-loop, multi-level feedback systems and must be treated as such to be successfully modified or improved.Self-regulation - E-type system evolution processes are self-regulating with the distribution of product and process measures close to normal.Organizational stability - The average effective global activity rate in an evolving E-type system is invariant over the lifetime of the product.

Software Paradigms

Software paradigms refer to the methods and steps, which are taken while designing the software. There are many methods proposed and are in work today, but we need to see where in the software engineering these paradigms stand. These can be combined into various categories, though each of them is contained in one another:

Programming paradigm is a subset of Software design paradigm which is further a subset of Software development paradigm.

Software Development Paradigm

This Paradigm is known as software engineering paradigms where all the engineering concepts pertaining to the development of software are applied. It includes various researches and requirement gathering which helps the software product to build. It consists of –

Requirement gatheringSoftware designProgramming

Software Design Paradigm

This paradigm is a part of Software Development and includes –

DesignMaintenanceProgramming

Programming Paradigm

This paradigm is related closely to programming aspect of software development. This includes –

CodingTestingIntegration

Need of Software Engineering

The need of software engineering arises because of higher rate of change in user requirements and environment on which the software is working.

Large software - It is easier to build a wall than to a house or building, likewise, as the size of software become large engineering has to step to give it a scientific process.Scalability- If the software process were not based on scientific and engineering concepts, it would be easier to re-create new software than to scale an existing one.Cost- As hardware industry has shown its skills and huge manufacturing has lower down he price of computer and electronic hardware. But the cost of software remains high if proper process is not adapted.Dynamic Nature- The always growing and adapting nature of software hugely depends upon the environment in which user works. If the nature of software is always changing, new enhancements need to be done in the existing one. This is where software engineering plays a good role.Quality Management- Better process of software development provides better and quality software product.

Characteristics of good software

A software product can be judged by what it offers and how well it can be used. This software must satisfy on the following grounds:

OperationalTransitionalMaintenance

Well-engineered and crafted software is expected to have the following characteristics:

Operational

This tells us how well software works in operations. It can be measured on:

BudgetUsabilityEfficiencyCorrectnessFunctionalityDependabilitySecuritySafety

Transitional

This aspect is important when the software is moved from one platform to another:

PortabilityInteroperabilityReusabilityAdaptability

Maintenance

This aspect briefs about how well a software has the capabilities to maintain itself in the ever-changing environment:

ModularityMaintainabilityFlexibilityScalability

In short, Software engineering is a branch of computer science, which uses well-defined engineering concepts required to produce efficient, durable, scalable, in-budget and on-time software products.

Software Development Life Cycle

Software Development Life Cycle, SDLC for short, is a well-defined, structured sequence of stages in software engineering to develop the intended software product.

SDLC Activities

SDLC provides a series of steps to be followed to design and develop a software product efficiently. SDLC framework includes the following steps:

Communication

This is the first step where the user initiates the request for a desired software product. He contacts the service provider and tries to negotiate the terms. He submits his request to the service providing organization in writing.

Requirement Gathering

This step onwards the software development team works to carry on the project. The team holds discussions with various stakeholders from problem domain and tries to bring out as much information as possible on their requirements. The requirements are contemplated and segregated into user requirements, system requirements and functional requirements. The requirements are collected using a number of practices as given -

studying the existing or obsolete system and software,conducting interviews of users and developers,referring to the database orcollecting answers from the questionnaires.

Feasibility Study

After requirement gathering, the team comes up with a rough plan of software process. At this step the team analyzes if a software can be made to fulfill all requirements of the user and if there is any possibility of software being no more useful. It is found out, if the project is financially, practically and technologically feasible for the organization to take up. There are many algorithms available, which help the developers to conclude the feasibility of a software project.

System Analysis

At this step the developers decide a roadmap of their plan and try to bring up the best software model suitable for the project. System analysis includes Understanding of software product limitations, learning system related problems or changes to be done in existing systems beforehand, identifying and addressing the impact of project on organization and personnel etc. The project team analyzes the scope of the project and plans the schedule and resources accordingly.

Software Design

Next step is to bring down whole knowledge of requirements and analysis on the desk and design the software product. The inputs from users and information gathered in requirement gathering phase are the inputs of this step. The output of this step comes in the form of two designs; logical design and physical design. Engineers produce meta-data and data dictionaries, logical diagrams, data-flow diagrams and in some cases pseudo codes.

Coding

This step is also known as programming phase. The implementation of software design starts in terms of writing program code in the suitable programming language and developing error-free executable programs efficiently.

Testing

An estimate says that 50% of whole software development process should be tested. Errors may ruin the software from critical level to its own removal. Software testing is done while coding by the developers and thorough testing is conducted by testing experts at various levels of code such as module testing, program testing, product testing, in-house testing and testing the product at user’s end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to reliable software.

Integration

Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases and other program(s). This stage of SDLC is involved in the integration of software with outer world entities.

Implementation

This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs post-installation configurations at user end. Software is tested for portability and adaptability and integration related issues are solved during implementation.

Operation and Maintenance

This phase confirms the software operation in terms of more efficiency and less errors. If required, the users are trained on, or aided with the documentation on how to operate the software and how to keep the software operational. The software is maintained timely by updating the code according to the changes taking place in user end environment or technology. This phase may face challenges from hidden bugs and real-world unidentified problems.

Disposition

As time elapses, the software may decline on the performance front. It may go completely obsolete or may need intense upgradation. Hence a pressing need to eliminate a major portion of the system arises. This phase includes archiving data and required software components, closing down the system, planning disposition activity and terminating system at appropriate end-of-system time.

Software Development Paradigm

The software development paradigm helps developer to select a strategy to develop the software. A software development paradigm has its own set of tools, methods and procedures, which are expressed clearly and defines software development life cycle. A few of software development paradigms or process models are defined as follows:

Waterfall Model

Waterfall model is the simplest model of software development paradigm. It says the all the phases of SDLC will function one after another in linear manner. That is, when the first phase is finished then only the second phase will start and so on.

This model assumes that everything is carried out and taken place perfectly as planned in the previous stage and there is no need to think about the past issues that may arise in the next phase. This model does not work smoothly if there are some issues left at the previous step. The sequential nature of model does not allow us go back and undo or redo our actions.

This model is best suited when developers already have designed and developed similar software in the past and are aware of all its domains.

Iterative Model

This model leads the software development process in iterations. It projects the process of development in cyclic manner repeating every step after every cycle of SDLC process.

The software is first developed on very small scale and all the steps are followed which are taken into consideration. Then, on every next iteration, more features and modules are designed, coded, tested and added to the software. Every cycle produces a software, which is complete in itself and has more features and capabilities than that of the previous one.

After each iteration, the management team can do work on risk management and prepare for the next iteration. Because a cycle includes small portion of whole software process, it is easier to manage the development process but it consumes more resources.

Spiral Model

Spiral model is a combination of both, iterative model and one of the SDLC model. It can be seen as if you choose one SDLC model and combine it with cyclic process (iterative model).

This model considers risk, which often goes un-noticed by most other models. The model starts with determining objectives and constraints of the software at the start of one iteration. Next phase is of prototyping the software. This includes risk analysis. Then one standard SDLC model is used to build the software. In the fourth phase of the plan of next iteration is prepared.

V – model

The major drawback of waterfall model is we move to the next stage only when the previous one is finished and there was no chance to go back if something is found wrong in later stages. V-Model provides means of testing of software at each stage in reverse manner.

At every stage, test plans and test cases are created to verify and validate the product according to the requirement of that stage. For example, in requirement gathering stage the test team prepares all the test cases in correspondence to the requirements. Later, when the product is developed and is ready for testing, test cases of this stage verify the software against its validity towards requirements at this stage.

This makes both verification and validation go in parallel. This model is also known as verification and validation model.

Big Bang Model

This model is the simplest model in its form. It requires little planning, lots of programming and lots of funds. This model is conceptualized around the big bang of universe. As scientists say that after big bang lots of galaxies, planets and stars evolved just as an event. Likewise, if we put together lots of programming and funds, you may achieve the best software product.

For this model, very small amount of planning is required. It does not follow any process, or at times the customer is not sure about the requirements and future needs. So the input requirements are arbitrary.

This model is not suitable for large software projects but good one for learning and experimenting.

For an in-depth reading on SDLC and its various models, click here.

Software Project Management

The job pattern of an IT company engaged in software development can be seen split in two parts:

Software CreationSoftware Project Management

A project is well-defined task, which is a collection of several operations done in order to achieve a goal (for example, software development and delivery). A Project can be characterized as:

Every project may has a unique and distinct goal.Project is not routine activity or day-to-day operations.Project comes with a start time and end time.Project ends when its goal is achieved hence it is a temporary phase in the lifetime of an organization.Project needs adequate resources in terms of time, manpower, finance, material and knowledge-bank.

Software Project

A Software Project is the complete procedure of software development from requirement gathering to testing and maintenance, carried out according to the execution methodologies, in a specified period of time to achieve intended software product.

Need of software project management

Software is said to be an intangible product. Software development is a kind of all new stream in world business and there’s very little experience in building software products. Most software products are tailor made to fit client’s requirements. The most important is that the underlying technology changes and advances so frequently and rapidly that experience of one product may not be applied to the other one. All such business and environmental constraints bring risk in software development hence it is essential to manage software projects efficiently.

 

The image above shows triple constraints for software projects. It is an essential part of software organization to deliver quality product, keeping the cost within client’s budget constrain and deliver the project as per scheduled. There ar

computer glossory

Applet

A small Java application that is downloaded by an ActiveX or Java-enabled web browser. Once it has been downloaded, the applet will run on the user's computer. Common applets include financial calculators and web drawing programs.

Application

Computer software that performs a task or set of tasks, such as word processing or drawing. Applications are also referred to as programs.

ASCII

American Standard Code for Information Interchange, an encoding system for converting keyboard characters and instructions into the binary number code that the computer understands.

Bandwidth

The capacity of a networked connection. Bandwidth determines how much data can be sent along the networked wires. Bandwidth is particularly important for Internet connections, since greater bandwidth also means faster downloads.

Binary code

The most basic language a computer understands, it is composed of a series of 0s and 1s. The computer interprets the code to form numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and symbols.

Bit

The smallest piece of computer information, either the number 0 or 1. In short they are called binary digits.

Boot

To start up a computer. Cold boot means restarting computer after the power is turned off. Warm boot means restarting computer without turning off the power.

Browser

Software used to navigate the Internet. Google Chrome, Firefox, Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer are today's most popular browsers for accessing the World Wide Web.

Bug

A malfunction due to an error in the program or a defect in the equipment.

Byte

Most computers use combinations of eight bits, called bytes, to represent one character of data or instructions. For example, the word cat has three characters, and it would be represented by three bytes.

Cache

A small data-memory storage area that a computer can use to instantly re-access data instead of re-reading the data from the original source, such as a hard drive. Browsers use a cache to store web pages so that the user may view them again without reconnecting to the Web.

CAD-CAM

Computer Aided Drawing - Computer Aided Manufacturing. The instructions stored in a computer that will be translated to very precise operating instructions to a robot, such as for assembling cars or laser-cutting signage.

CD-ROM

Compact Disc Read-Only Memory, an optically read disc designed to hold information such as music, reference materials, or computer software. A single CD-ROM can hold around 640 megabytes of data, enough for several encyclopaedias. Most software programs are now delivered on CD-ROMs.

CGI

Common Gateway Interface, a programming standard that allows visitors to fill out form fields on a Web page and have that information interact with a database, possibly coming back to the user as another Web page. CGI may also refer to Computer-Generated Imaging, the process in which sophisticated computer programs create still and animated graphics, such as special effects for movies.

Chat

Typing text into a message box on a screen to engage in dialogue with one or more people via the Internet or other network.

Chip

A tiny wafer of silicon containing miniature electric circuits that can store millions of bits of information.

Client

A single user of a network application that is operated from a server. A client/server architecture allows many people to use the same data simultaneously. The program's main component (the data) resides on a centralized server, with smaller components (user interface) on each client.

Cookie

A text file sent by a Web server that is stored on the hard drive of a computer and relays back to the Web server things about the user, his or her computer, and/or his or her computer activities.

CPU

Central Processing Unit. The brain of the computer.

Cracker

A person who breaks in to a computer through a network, without authorization and with mischievous or destructive intent.

Crash

A hardware or software problem that causes information to be lost or the computer to malfunction. Sometimes a crash can cause permanent damage to a computer.

Cursor

A moving position-indicator displayed on a computer monitor that shows a computer operator where the next action or operation will take place.

Cyberspace

Slang for internet ie. An international conglomeration of interconnected computer networks. Begun in the late 1960s, it was developed in the 1970s to allow government and university researchers to share information. The Internet is not controlled by any single group or organization. Its original focus was research and communications, but it continues to expand, offering a wide array of resources for business and home users.

Database

A collection of similar information stored in a file, such as a database of addresses. This information may be created and stored in a database management system (DBMS).

Debug

Slang. To find and correct equipment defects or program malfunctions.

Default

The pre-defined configuration of a system or an application. In most programs, the defaults can be changed to reflect personal preferences.

Desktop

The main directory of the user interface. Desktops usually contain icons that represent links to the hard drive, a network (if there is one), and a trash or recycling can for files to be deleted. It can also display icons of frequently used applications, as requested by the user.

Desktop publishing

The production of publication-quality documents using a personal computer in combination with text, graphics, and page layout programs.

Directory

A repository where all files are kept on computer.

Disk

Two distinct types. The names refer to the media inside the container:

A hard disc stores vast amounts of data. It is usually inside the computer but can be a separate peripheral on the outside. Hard discs are made up of several rigid coated metal discs. Currently, hard discs can store 15 to 30 Gb (gigabytes).

A floppy disc, 3.5" square, usually inserted into the computer and can store about 1.4 megabytes of data. The 3.5" square floppies have a very thin, flexible disc inside. There is also an intermediate-sized floppy disc, trademarked Zip discs, which can store 250 megabytes of data.

Disk drive

The equipment that operates a hard or floppy disc.

Domain

Represents an IP (Internet Protocol) address or set of IP addresses that comprise a domain. The domain name appears in URLs to identify web pages or in email addresses. For example, the email address for the First Lady is first.lady@whitehouse.gov, whitehouse.gov, being the domain name. Each domain name ends with a suffix that indicates what top level domain it belongs to. These are : .com for commercial, .gov for government, .org for organization, .edu for educational institution, .biz for business, .info for information, .tv for television, .ws for website. Domain suffixes may also indicate the country in which the domain is registered. No two parties can ever hold the same domain name.

Domain name

The name of a network or computer linked to the Internet. Domains are defined by a common IP address or set of similar IP (Internet Protocol) addresses.

Download

The process of transferring information from a web site (or other remote location on a network) to the computer. It is possible to download a file which include text, image, audio, video and many others.

DOS

Disk Operating System. An operating system designed for early IBM-compatible PCs.

Drop-down menu

A menu window that opens vertically on-screen to display context-related options. Also called pop-up menu or pull-down menu.

DSL

Digital Subscriber Line, a method of connecting to the Internet via a phone line. A DSL connection uses copper telephone lines but is able to relay data at much higher speeds than modems and does not interfere with telephone use.

DVD

Digital Video Disc. Similar to a CD-ROM, it stores and plays both audio and video.

E-book

An electronic (usually hand-held) reading device that allows a person to view digitally stored reading materials.

Email

Electronic mail; messages, including memos or letters, sent electronically between networked computers that may be across the office or around the world.

Emoticon

A text-based expression of emotion created from ASCII characters that mimics a facial expression when viewed with your head tilted to the left. Here are some examples:

SmilingFrowningWinkingCrying

Encryption

The process of transmitting scrambled data so that only authorized recipients can unscramble it. For instance, encryption is used to scramble credit card information when purchases are made over the Internet.

Ethernet

A type of network.

Ethernet card

A board inside a computer to which a network cable can be attached.

File

A set of data that is stored in the computer.

Firewall

A set of security programs that protect a computer from outside interference or access via the Internet.

Folder

A structure for containing electronic files. In some operating systems, it is called a directory.

Fonts

Sets of typefaces (or characters) that come in different styles and sizes.

Freeware

Software created by people who are willing to give it away for the satisfaction of sharing or knowing they helped to simplify other people's lives. It may be free-standing software, or it may add functionality to existing software.

FTP

File Transfer Protocol, a format and set of rules for transferring files from a host to a remote computer.

Gigabyte (GB)

1024 megabytes. Also called gig.

Glitch

The cause of an unexpected malfunction.

Gopher

An Internet search tool that allows users to access textual information through a series of menus, or if using FTP, through downloads.

GUI

Graphical User Interface, a system that simplifies selecting computer commands by enabling the user to point to symbols or illustrations (called icons) on the computer screen with a mouse.

Groupware

Software that allows networked individuals to form groups and collaborate on documents, programs, or databases.

Hacker

A person with technical expertise who experiments with computer systems to determine how to develop additional features. Hackers are occasionally requested by system administrators to try and break into systems via a network to test security. The term hacker is sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably with cracker. A hacker is called a white hat and a cracker a black hat.

Hard copy

A paper printout of what you have prepared on the computer.

Hard drive

Another name for the hard disc that stores information in a computer.

Hardware

The physical and mechanical components of a computer system, such as the electronic circuitry, chips, monitor, disks, disk drives, keyboard, modem, and printer.

Home page

The main page of a Web site used to greet visitors, provide information about the site, or to direct the viewer to other pages on the site.

HTML

Hypertext Markup Language, a standard of text markup conventions used for documents on the World Wide Web. Browsers interpret the codes to give the text structure and formatting (such as bold, blue, or italic).

HTTP

Hypertext Transfer Protocol, a common system used to request and send HTML documents on the World Wide Web. It is the first portion of all URL addresses on the World Wide Web.

HTTPS

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure, often used in intracompany internet sites. Passwords are required to gain access.

Hyperlink

Text or an image that is connected by hypertext coding to a different location. By selecting the text or image with a mouse, the computer jumps to (or displays) the linked text.

Hypermedia

Integrates audio, graphics, and/or video through links embedded in the main program.

Hypertext

A system for organizing text through links, as opposed to a menu-driven hierarchy such as Gopher. Most Web pages include hypertext links to other pages at that site, or to other sites on the World Wide Web.

Icons

Symbols or illustrations appearing on the computer screen that indicate program files or other computer functions.

Input

Data that goes into a computer device.

Input device

A device, such as a keyboard, stylus and tablet, mouse, puck, or microphone, that allows input of information (letters, numbers, sound, video) to a computer.

Instant messaging (IM)

A chat application that allows two or more people to communicate over the Internet via real-time keyed-in messages.

Interface

The interconnections that allow a device, a program, or a person to interact. Hardware interfaces are the cables that connect the device to its power source and to other devices. Software interfaces allow the program to communicate with other programs (such as the operating system), and user interfaces allow the user to communicate with the program (e.g., via mouse, menu commands, icons, voice commands, etc.).

Internet

An international conglomeration of interconnected computer networks. Begun in the late 1960s, it was developed in the 1970s to allow government and university researchers to share information. The Internet is not controlled by any single group or organization. Its original focus was research and communications, but it continues to expand, offering a wide array of resources for business and home users.

IP (Internet Protocol) address

An Internet Protocol address is a unique set of numbers used to locate another computer on a network. The format of an IP address is a 32-bit string of four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be from 0 to 255 (i.e., 1.154.10.255). Within a closed network IP addresses may be assigned at random, however, IP addresses of web servers must be registered to avoid duplicates.

Java

An object-oriented programming language designed specifically for programs (particularly multimedia) to be used over the Internet. Java allows programmers to create small programs or applications (applets) to enhance Web sites.

JavaScript/ECMA script

A programming language used almost exclusively to manipulate content on a web page. Common JavaScript functions include validating forms on a web page, creating dynamic page navigation menus, and image rollovers.

Kilobyte (K or KB)

Equal to 1,024 bytes.

Linux

A UNIX - like, open-source operating system developed primarily by Linus Torvalds. Linux is free and runs on many platforms, including both PCs and Macintoshes. Linux is an open-source operating system, meaning that the source code of the operating system is freely available to the public. Programmers may redistribute and modify the code, as long as they don't collect royalties on their work or deny access to their code. Since development is not restricted to a single corporation more programmers can debug and improve the source code faster.

Laptop and notebook

Small, lightweight, portable battery-powered computers that can fit onto your lap. They each have a thin, flat, liquid crystal display screen.

Macro

A script that operates a series of commands to perform a function. It is set up to automate repetitive tasks.

Mac OS

An operating system with a graphical user interface, developed by Apple for Macintosh computers. Current System X.1.(10) combines the traditional Mac interface with a strong underlying UNIX. Operating system for increased performance and stability.

Megabyte (MB)

Equal to 1,048,576 bytes, usually rounded off to one million bytes (also called a meg).

Memory

Temporary storage for information, including applications and documents. The information must be stored to a permanent device, such as a hard disc or CD-ROM before the power is turned off, or the information will be lost. Computer memory is measured in terms of the amount of information it can store, commonly in megabytes or gigabytes.

Menu

A context-related list of options that users can choose from.

Hacking

Hacking has been a part of computing for almost five decades and it is a very broad discipline, which covers a wide range of topics. The first known event of hacking had taken place in 1960 at MIT and at the same time, the term "Hacker" was originated.

Hacking is the act of finding the possible entry points that exist in a computer system or a computer network and finally entering into them. Hacking is usually done to gain unauthorized access to a computer system or a computer network, either to harm the systems or to steal sensitive information available on the computer.

Hacking is usually legal as long as it is being done to find weaknesses in a computer or network system for testing purpose. This sort of hacking is what we call Ethical Hacking.

A computer expert who does the act of hacking is called a "Hacker". Hackers are those who seek knowledge, to understand how systems operate, how they are designed, and then attempt to play with these systems.

Types of Hacking

We can segregate hacking into different categories, based on what is being hacked. Here is a set of examples −

Website Hacking − Hacking a website means taking unauthorized control over a web server and its associated software such as databases and other interfaces.

Network Hacking − Hacking a network means gathering information about a network by using tools like Telnet, NS lookup, Ping, Tracert, Netstat, etc. with the intent to harm the network system and hamper its operation.

Email Hacking − It includes getting unauthorized access on an Email account and using it without taking the consent of its owner.

Ethical Hacking − Ethical hacking involves finding weaknesses in a computer or network system for testing purpose and finally getting them fixed.

Password Hacking − This is the process of recovering secret passwords from data that has been stored in or transmitted by a computer system.

Computer Hacking − This is the process of stealing computer ID and password by applying hacking methods and getting unauthorized access to a computer system.

Advantages of Hacking

Hacking is quite useful in the following scenarios −

To recover lost information, especially in case you lost your password.

To perform penetration testing to strengthen computer and network security.

To put adequate preventative measures in place to prevent security breaches.

To have a computer system that prevents malicious hackers from gaining access.

Disadvantages of Hacking

Hacking is quite dangerous if it is done with harmful intent. It can cause −

Massive security breach.

Unauthorized system access on private information.

Privacy violation.

Hampering system operation.

Denial of service attacks.

Malicious attack on the system.

Purpose of Hacking

There could be various positive and negative intentions behind performing hacking activities. Here is a list of some probable reasons why people indulge in hacking activities −

Just for fun

Show-off

Steal important information

Damaging the system

Hampering privacy

Money extortion

System security testing

To break policy compliance

राजस्व_भाषा की जानकारी - पटवारी स्पेशल ********** 1 आबादी देह→ गॉंव का बसा हुआ क्षेत्र । 2 मौजा→ ग्राम 3 हदबस्त →त्हसील में गॉंव का सिलसिलावार नम्बर । 4 मौजा बेचिराग →बिना आबादी का गॉंव । 5 मिसल हकीयत→ बन्दोबस्त के समय विस्तारपूर्वक तैयार की गई जमाबन्दी । 6 जमाबन्दी→ भूमि की मलकियत व बोने के अधिकारों की पुस्तक । 7 इन्तकाल →मलकियत की तबदीली का आदेश । 8 खसरा गिरदावरी→ खातेवार मलकियत,बोने व लगान का रजिस्टर । 9 लाल किताब →गॉंव की भूमि से सम्बन्धित पूर्ण जानकारी देने वाली पुस्तक । 11 शजरा नसब→ भूमिदारों की वंशावली । 12 पैमाईश →भूमि का नापना । 13 गज →भूमि नापने का पैमाना । 14 अडडा →जरीब की पडताल करने के लिए भूमि पर बनाया गया माप । 15 जरीब →भूमि नापने की 10 कर्म लम्बी लोहे की जंजीर । 16 गठठा →57.157 ईंच जरीब का दसवां भाग । 17 क्रम →66 ईंच लम्बा जरीब का दसवां भाग । 18 क््रास →लम्ब डालने के लिए लकडी का यन्त्र । 19 झण्डी →लाईन की सीधाई के लिए 12 फुट का बांस । 20 फरेरा→ दूर से झण्डी देखने के लिए बांस पर बंधा तिकोना रंग बिरंगा कपडा । 21 सूए →पैमाईश के लिए एक फुट सरिया । 22 पैमाना पीतल →म्सावी बनाने के लिए पीतल का बना हुआ ईंच । 23 म्ुसावी→ मोटे कागज पर खेतों की सीमायें दर्शाने वाला नक्शा । 24 शजरा→ खेतों की सीमायें दिखाने वाला नक्शा । 25 शजरा किस्तवार→ टरैसिंग क्लाथ या टरैसिंग पेपर पर बना हुआ खेतों का नक्शा 26 शजरा पार्चा→ कपउे पर बना खेतों का नक्शा । 27 अक्स शजरा →शजरे की नकल (प्रति) 28 फिल्ड बुक →खेतों के क्षेत्रफल की विवरण पुस्तिका । 29 बीघा →40ग40 वर्ग करम त्र4 बीघे का खेत । 30 मुरब्बा→ 25 किलों की समूह यानि 200 कनाल 31 मुस्ततील→ 25 एकड का समूह यानि 200 कनाल 32 इस्तखराज →नम्बर की चारों भुजाओं की लम्बाई व चौडाई क्षेत्रफल निकालना 33 रकबा→ खेत का क्षेत्रफल 34 किस्म जमीन →भूमि की किस्म 35 जमीन सफावार →खेतों का पृष्ठवार जोड 36 थ्मजान खातावार →जेतवार जोड 37 मिजान कुलदेह→ गॉंव के कुल क्षेत्रफल का जोड 38 जोड किस्मवार →गॉंव की भूमि का किस्मवार जोड 39 गोशा →खेत का हिस्सा 40 त्तीमा →खेत का बांटा गया भाग 41 व्तर →कर्ण 42 बिसवांसी →57.157 ईंच कर्म का वर्ग 43 बिसवा→ 20 बिसवांसी 44 बिघा →20 बिसवा 45 म्रला →9 सरसाही बारबर 30-1@4 वर्ग गज त्र1@20 46 क्नाल →20 मरले 605त्र वर्ग गज त्र1@8 एकड 47 एकड →एक किला (40 करमग 36 करम) 4 बीघे- 16 बिसवेत्र(4840 वर्ग गज) 49 शर्क →पूर्व 50 गर्व→ प्श्चिम 51 जनूब→ दक्षिण 52 शुमाल→ उत्तर 53 खेवट→ मलकियत का विवरण 54 खतौनी→ कशतकार का विवरण 55 पत्ती तरफ ठोला→ गॉंव में मालकों का समूह 56 गिरदावर(कानूनगो)→ पटवारी के कार्य का निरीक्षण करने वाला 57 दफतर कानूनगो →तहसील कार्यालय का कानूनगो 58 नायब दफतर कानूनगो→ सहायक दफतर कानूनगो 60 सदर कानूनगो→ जिला कार्यालय का कानूनगो । 61 वासल वाकी नवीस→ राजस्व विभाग की वसूली का लेखा रखने वाला कर्मचारी 62 मालिक→ भूमि का भू-स्वामी 63 कास्तकार→ भूमि को जोतने वाला एवं कास्त करने वाला । 64 मालक कब्जा →मालिक जिसका शामलात में हिस्सा न हो । 65 मालक कामिल→ मालिक जिसका शामलात में हिस्सा हो 66 शामलात →सांझाी भूमि 67 शामलात देह→ गॉंव की शामलात भूमि 68 शामलात पाना →पाने की शामलात भूमि 69 शामलात पत्ती →पत्ती की शामलात भूमि 70 शामलात ठौला →ठोले की शामलात भूमि 71 मुजारा→ भूमि को जोतने वाला जो मालिक को लगान देता हो । 72 मौरूसी →बेदखल न होने वाला व लगान देने वाला मुजारा 73 गैर मौरूसी →बेदखल होने योग्य कास्तकार 74 छोहलीदार →जिसको भूमि दान दी जावे । 76 नहरी →नहर के पानी से सिंचित भूमि । 77 चाही नहरी→ नहर व कुएं द्वारा सिंचित भूमि 78 चाही →क्ुएं द्वारा सिंचित भूमि 79 चाही मुस्तार →खरीदे हुए पानी द्वारा सिंचित भूमि । 80 बरानी→ वर्षा पर निर्भर भूमि । 81 आबी →नहर व कुएंे के अलावा अन्य साधनों से सिंचित भूमि । 82 बंजर जदीद→ चार फसलों तक खाली भूमि । 83 बंजर कदीम →आठ फसलों तक खाली पडी भूमि । 84 गैर मुमकिन →कास्त के अयोग्य भूमि । 85 नौतौड→ कास्त अयोग्य भूमि को कास्त योग्य बनाना । 86 क्लर →शोरा या खार युक्त भूमि । 87 चकौता →नकद लगान । 88 सालाना →वार्षिक 90 बटाई →पैदावार का भाग । 91 तिहाई →पैदावार का 1@3 भाग । 92 निसफी→ पैदावार का 1@2 भाग । 93 पंज दुवंजी→ पैदावार का 2@5 भाग । 94 चहाराम →पैदावार का 1@4 भाग । 95 तीन चहाराम→ पैदावार का 3@4 भाग । 97 मुन्द्रजा→ पूर्वलिखित (उपरोक्त) 98 मजकूर→ चालू 99 राहिन →गिरवी देने वाला । 100 मुर्तहिन →गिरवी लेने वाला ।

Jarur dekhe ye video ek muslim ne itana pyara hidustani gaana gaya hai

15 August

स्वतंत्रता दिवस

मेरे सभी आदरणीय अधयापकों, अभिभावक, और प्यारे मित्रों को सुबह का नमस्कार। इस महान राष्ट्रीय अवसर को मनाने के लिये आज हमलोग यहाँ इकठ्ठा हुए है। जैसा कि हम जानते है कि स्वतंत्रता दिवस हम सभी के लिये एक मंगल अवसर है। ये सभी भारतीय नागरिकों के लिये बहुत महत्वपूर्ण दिन है तथा ये इतिहास में सदा के लिये उल्लिखित हो चुका है। ये वो दिन है जब भारत के महान स्वतंत्रता सेनानीयों द्वारा वर्षों के कड़े संघर्ष के बाद ब्रिटीश शासन से हमें आजादी मिली। भारत की आजादी के पहले दिन को याद करने के लिये हम हर साल 15 अगस्त को स्वतंत्रता दिवस मनाते है साथ ही साथ उन सभी महान नेताओं के बलिदानों को याद करते है जिन्होंने भारत की आजादी के लिये अपनी आहुति दी।
ब्रिटीश शासन से 15 अगस्त 1947 में भारत को स्वतंत्रता मिली। आजादी के बाद हमें अपने राष्ट्र और मातृभूमि में सारे मूलभूत अधिकार मिले। हमें अपने भारतीय होने पर गर्व होना चाहिये और अपने सौभाग्य की प्रशंसा करनी चाहिये कि हम आजाद भारत की भूमि में पैदा हुए है। गुलाम भारत का इतिहास सबकुछ बयाँ करता है कि कैसे हमारे पूर्वजों ने कड़ा संघर्ष किया और फिरंगियो कें क्रूर यातनाओं को सहन किया। हम यहाँ बैठ के इस बात की कल्पना नहीं कर सकते कि ब्रिटीश शासन से आजादी कितनी मुश्किल थी। इसने अनगिनत स्वतंत्रता सेनानीयों के जीवन का बलिदान और 1857 से 1947 तक कई दशकों का संघर्ष लिया है। भारत की आजादी के लिये अंग्रेजों के खिलाफ सबसे पहले आवाज ब्रिटीश सेना में काम करने वाले सैनिक मंगल पांडे ने उठायी थी।
बाद में कई महान स्वतंत्रता सेनानीयों ने संघर्ष किया और अपने पूरे जीवन को आजादी के लिये दे दिया। हम सब कभी भी भगत सिंह, खुदीराम बोस और चन्द्रशेखर आजाद को नहीं भूल सकते जिन्होंने बहुत कम उम्र में देश के लड़ते हुए अपनी जान गवाँ दी। कैसे हम नेताजी और गाँधी जी संघर्षों को दरकिनार कर सकते है। गाँधी जी एक महान व्यक्तित्व थे जिन्होंने भारतीयों को अहिंसा का पाठ पढ़ाया था। वो एक एकमात्र ऐसे नेता थे जिन्होंने अहिंसा के माध्यम के आजादी का रास्ता दिखाया। और अंतत: लंबे संघर्ष के बाद 15 अगस्त 1947 को वो दिन आया जब भारत को आजादी मिली।
हमलोग काफी भाग्यशाली है कि हमारे पूर्वजों ने हमें शांति और खुशी की धरती दी है जहाँ हम बिना डरे पूरी रात सो सकते है और अपने स्कूल तथा घर में पूरा दिन मस्ती कर सके। हमारा देश तेजी से तकनीक, शिक्षा, खेल, वित्त, और कई दूसरे क्षेत्रों में विकसित कर रहा है जोकि बिना आजादी के संभव नहीं था। परमाणु ऊर्जा में समृद्ध देशों में एक भारत है। ओलंपिक, कॉमनवेल्थ गेम्स, एशियन गेम्स जैसे खेलों में सक्रिय रुप से भागीदारी करने के द्वारा हमलोग आगे बढ़ रहे है। हमें अपनी सरकार चुनने की पूरी आजादी है और दुनिया के सबसे बड़े लोकतंत्र का उपयोग कर रहे है। हाँ, हम मुक्त है और पूरी आजादी है हालाँकि हमें खुद को अपने देश के प्रति जिम्मेदारीयों से मुक्त नहीं समझना चाहिये। देश के जिम्मेदार नागरिक होने के नाते, किसी भी आपात स्थिति के लिये हमें हमेशा तैयार रहना चाहिये।
Jai hind jai bharat

भारतीय इतिहास

Q.1. नोबेल पुरस्कार पाने बाला पहला भारतीय नागरिक कौन था
ans:रविन्द्रनाथ टैगोर (1913 में)
Q.2. मिड डे मील योजना किस वर्ष शुरु हुई
ans: 1995 में
Q.3. लोधी वंश का संस्थापक कौन था
ans: बहलोल लोधी
Q.4.किस संविधान संशोधन को ‘मिनी काँन्स्टीट्यूशन’ कहते है
ans:w 42वे
Q.5.गोताखोर पानी के अंदर सांस लेने के लिए कौन कौन सी गैसों का मिश्रण ले जाते हैं
ans:आक्सीजन और हीलियम गैसों का मिश्रण
Q.6. होम्योपैथी का संस्थापक कौन था
ans:हनीमैन
Q.7.फलों को पकाने में कौन सी गैस उपयोग में लायी जाती है
ans: ऐथिलीन
Q.8. पं. हरिप्रसाद चौरसिया कौनसा वाद्य यंत्र बजाते हैं
ans:बाँसुरी
Q.9.साँची के स्तूप का निर्माण किसने करवाया था
ans:अशोक
Q.10.यक्षगान किस राज्य का लोकनृत्य है
ans:कर्नाटक
Q.11.मैकमोहन रेखा किन दो देशों के बीच सीमा बनाती है
ans: भारत-चीन
Q.12. प्याज में खाद्य भाग कौनसा है
ans: तना
Q.13.श्रव्य परिसर में ध्वनि तरंगों की आवृति कितनी होती है
ans:20 Hz से 20000 Hz
Q.14.मधुबनी किस राज्य की लोक चित्रकला शैली है
ans:बिहार
Q.15.किस नदी को दक्षिण गंगा कहा जाता है
ans:गोदावरी
Q.16.निर्विरोध चुने जाने वाले एकमात्र राष्ट्रपति कौन थे
ans: नीलम संजीवा रेड्डी
Q.17.महिलाओं की साक्षरता दर किस राज्य में सबसे ऊंची है?
ans: केरल में
Q.18. निर्धनता उन्मूलन एवं आर्थिक आत्मनिर्भरता किस पंचवर्षीय योजना के मुख्य उद्देश्य थे
ans:पाँचवीं पंचवर्षीय योजना
Q.19. बदरुद्दीन तैयब जी ने किस स्थान पर आयोजित कांग्रेस अधिवेशन की अध्यक्षता की थी
ans:मद्रास
Q.20. इंडियन नेशनल आर्मी के सैनिको के 1946 में चलाये गए मुकदमे में वकीलो के पैनल का नेतृत्व किसने किया था?
ans:भूला देसाई ने
.
Q.21.कांग्रेस के किस अधिवेशन में स्वदेशी का प्रस्ताव पारित किया गया
ans: कलकत्ता अधिवेशन (1906)
Q.22.किस घटना के सम्बन्ध में रवीन्द्रनाथ टैगोर ने 'नाईटहुड' की पदवी त्याग दी थी
ans:जलीयांवाला बाग़ नरसंहार की घटना के सम्बन्ध में
Q.23.एक अंग्रेज फिलिप स्प्रेट पर किस षणयंत्र के लिए मुकदमा चलाया गया
ans:मेरठ षणयंत्र केस में
Q.24.ब्राह्मण साहित्य में सर्वाधिक प्राचीन कौन से ग्रन्थ हैं
ans: वेद
Q.25.किस अधिकार को बी. आर. अम्बेडकर ने संविधान का दिल एवं आत्मा कहा था
ans:संवैधानिक उपचारो का अधिकार
Q.26.एटलस ड्रैकन्सबर्ग पर्वत तथा किलिमंजारो ज्वालामुखी किस महाद्वीप में है
ans:अफ्रीका में
Q.27. राष्ट्रीय नवीनीकरण फंड का गठन किस उद्देश्य से किया गया था
ans: उद्योगों की पुनः संरचना और आधुनिकीकरण के लिए
Q.28.यदि प्राथमिक घाटे में ब्याज भुगतान को सम्मिलित कर लिया जाये तो वह किस घटे के बराबर होता है
ans: राजकोषीय घाटे के
Q.29.किसने पहलीबार 'व्यय कर' लगाने का सुझाव दिया था
ans:कॉलडोर ने
Q.30.राष्ट्रीय विकास परिषद का पदेन कौन होता है
ans:योजना आयोग का सचिव
Q.31. बौद्ध ग्रन्थ त्रिपिटक की रचना कब हुई
ans: महात्मा बुद्ध के निर्वाण प्राप्त करने के बाद
Q.32.हिस्टोरिक' नामक ग्रन्थ के लेखक कौन हैं
ans:हेरोडोटस
Q.33.महाबलीपुरम किसके शासनकाल में प्रसिद्ध था
ans: पल्लव शासकों के शासनकाल में
Q.34.तन्जौर का राजराजेश्वर मन्दिर किस वंश के शासक ने बनवाया था
ans:चोल वंश के शासक ने
Q.35.सम्राट जार्ज पंचम के भारत आगमन के समय वायसराय कौन था
ans: लार्ड हॉर्डिंग्स द्वितीय